First of all we should try and explain what influenza (flu) is. There are three main types: A, B and C, with B and C only infecting humans and influenza A being able to infect humans, animals and birds. The surface of each influenza A virus contains two types of protein, neuraminidase (N), of which there are nine types, and haemagglutinin (H), of which there are sixteen types. Consequently, there are lots of sub-strains of the influenza A virus and they are given names depending on the type of proteins found on the surface. Examples of these sub-strains could be H1N1, H1N2 and H2N3.

Another characteristic of the A strain is that it has the ability to produce new strains – in other words, mutate. It is as these new strains occur that new types of flu are discovered.

Bird flu is a strain of influenza A that affects birds, of which all species can be affected. Whereas wild birds can carry the disease when they migrate, they don’t usually become ill with it whereas poultry birds like turkeys and chickens do become ill. The virus spreads easily between these birds.

Bird Flu

It is the H5N1 virus that is causing all the problems with humans at the moment. This strain has affected birds for almost half a century, but it mutated back in 1997 in the Far East and spread to humans. As of yet this strain of the virus cannot be transferred from human to human, only from bird to bird or sometime bird to human.

Hepatitis A is an infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis A virus. The well-respected World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that almost 1.5 million new cases of hepatitis A related illnesses occur each year worldwide, with a much higher number of people than this affected without showing any symptoms. The condition is more prevalent in the developing world where poverty and sanitation issues are rampant.

Hepatitis A is regarded as an acute infection as opposed to a chronic one, but in rare occurrences it can cause liver damage that is life threatening. The severity of symptoms in patients with the virus varies from individual to individual and whereas some may have no symptoms at all, others may develop symptoms to those similar of catching flu. As a rule, the older a person is, the more severe the infection, and therefore the symptoms, will be.

Some of the symptoms associated with hepatitis A include tiredness, weakness, fever, headache, nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, dehydration and diarrhea. After a week or so of these symptoms, jaundice will appear. This occurs because in hepatitis infections, the liver is unable to remove a substance known as bilirubin from the blood. The skin and whites of the eyes become a yellow color because of the buildup of this pigment.

Hepatitis can be avoided be taking the following precautions: high levels of personal hygiene, drinking safe tap water and getting vaccinated against the disease if a visit to a high risk country is to be taken.

The testicles are found within the scrotum which is a loose sac of skin hanging down behind the penis.  The function of the testicles is to produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.  Most of the time any lumps or swelling within the testicles are benign but it is natural for people to worry when they have found a lump.

Testicular torsion results in swelling of the testicles if the testicle has become twisted.  This interrupts blood flow and causes a large tender distension.  It often happens in developing boys who are experiencing puberty but has also been know to happen in men in their 20’s although it is quite rare.  Testicular torsion is a medical emergency due to the fact that it needs to be rectified by surgery within 6 hours or there is a risk that the testicle will be lost.

Symptoms of testicular torsion include nausea; vomiting; swelling of the scrotum; fever; abdominal pain; the need to urinate often; and, excruciating pain in one testicle.  The cause of testicular torsion results from a spermatic cord that is too long.  The spermatic cord is where the testicles hang from and in some boys this cord is too long leading to increased movement of the testicle which means the cord becoming twisted.  If it twists too much it will cut off the blood supply and the testicle will die.  Testicular torsion can sometimes just happen for no reason at all or it can be the result of strenuous exercise or other physical activity.

An ultrasound scan can be done to confirm suspicion of testicular torsion. Surgery needs to take place almost immediately to save the testicle.  The surgeon will have to cut the scrotum and untwist the cord.  He will then sew the cord to the scrotum to prevent this happening again.

Testicular Torsion